The Project Gutenberg eBook, Mohammed, The Prophet of Islam, by H. E. E.
Hayes


This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net





Title: Mohammed, The Prophet of Islam

Author: H. E. E. Hayes

Release Date: November 16, 2004  [eBook #14064]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)


***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOHAMMED, THE PROPHET OF ISLAM***


E-text prepared by Michael Ciesielski and the Project Gutenberg Online
Distributed Proofreading Team



MOHAMMED

A Popular Essay on the Life of the Prophet of Islam

by

H. E. E. HAYES







  There is no God but God,
  and Mohammed is the Apostle of God.

                    (_Moslem Creed._)






Price 3d. post free,
From "Hythe House"
Greenhithe, Kent.


+--------------------------------------------------------------+
|                                                              |
|  If you are interested in Missionary work in Moslem lands,   |
|                           read the                           |
|                                                              |
|                       "MOSLEM WORLD,"                        |
|                                                              |
|    A quarterly review of current events, literature, and     |
|   thought among Mohammedans; and the progress of Christian   |
|                  Missions in Moslem lands.                   |
|                                                              |
|                          Edited by                           |
|                                                              |
|                    SAMUEL M. ZWEMER, D.D.                    |
|                                                              |
|   Published by the Christian Literature Society for India    |
|          35 John Street, Bedford Row, London, W.C.           |
|                                                              |
|        Sent post free 1s. per copy or 4s. per annum.         |
|                                                              |
|                 SEND YOUR SUBSCRIPTION NOW.                  |
|                                                              |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+
|                                                              |
|                        READ ALSO THE                         |
|                                                              |
|                  Egypt General Mission News                  |
|                                                              |
|      Published bi-monthly by the EGYPT GENERAL MISSION,      |
|            10 Drayton Park, Highbury, London, N.             |
|                   1s. per annum post free.                   |
|                                                              |
|    This Magazine gives a current account of Mission work     |
|          amongst the Moslems of Egyptian villages.           |
|                                                              |
|         PRAY FOR ALL CHRISTIAN WORK AMONGST MOSLEMS          |
|                                                              |
|                                                              |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+





PREFACE.


So-called Moslem missionaries are spreading through the Press such
idealistic and false views of the religion and character of Mohammed,
that we need to be on our guard against them.

Unbiased historians have stated that there is much that is deplorable
in the life of the prophet of Islam. And it is certain that his
teaching has increased the degradation of the nations that have come
under its influence.

Much of the literature that is being circulated in England by the
"Moslem missionaries," claims that Moslem women are better off, so far
as property rights go, than their Christian sisters. However true this
may be, it does not lift them out of the degradation of polygamy and
concubinage, with a capricious system of divorce, which makes them the
victims of the selfish baseness of their husbands and masters, which
Mohammed himself sanctioned.

The following essay, it is hoped, will help to counteract the false
ideas that are being scattered abroad, and lead those who read to
study more deeply the problems and sorrows of millions of the Moslem
subjects of our Gracious King.

The prayers of all Christians are asked on behalf of these millions,
and for those who labour to preach the "unsearchable riches of Christ"
amongst them.

H.E.E. HAYES.

GREENHITHE:

July, 1914.




MOHAMMED

The Prophet of Islam.

By H.E.E. HAYES.

INTRODUCTION.


Just as the character of Jesus is stamped upon the religion which
originated in His Person, so is the character of Mohammed impressed
upon the system which he, with marvellous ingenuity, founded. The
practical influence of Islam upon individual lives produces results
that reflect unmistakably the character of its founder, and a careful
study of the tenets of the system in relation to its history enable
the student to estimate the real worth of the man.

As the Apostle of God, Mohammed is the ideal of every true Moslem. His
life is the standard by which the lives of his followers are tested,
although he himself confesses that his life was not holy. In the
Koran, and the earlier traditions, he is pictured as being in no way
better than his fellows, and as weak and liable to error as the
poorest of his contemporaries. Yet later tradition minimises his
faults and weakness, and surrounds his person with a halo of glory
that makes him appear sinless and almost divine. All the doubtful
incidents of his life are either eliminated and ignored, or
assiduously supported and defended by his pious, misguided followers.

It is a point in his favour that he never claimed infallibility for
his actions or opinions; and his habit of attempting to cover or
justify his glaring faults by suitable revelations, although
indefensibly immoral, reveals the fact that he was conscious of his
own shortcomings. When he was at the zenith of his power, "revelation"
became merely an instrument of self glorification, licensing him in
every whim and fancy, because it gave him, as the prophet of God,
exemption from all law and order. His scheme was characteristically
ingenious and immoral. Had he known of the divine effulgence with
which he was afterwards encircled by his fanatical followers, he
would, in all probability, have strongly discountenanced it. The
incongruous sanctity with which his commonplace utterances and petty
actions were invested would have caused fear lest it became derogatory
to his creed of divine unity.



TRADITION.


As a source of information, the traditions are obviously unreliable,
for they are coloured by the excessive zeal and irrational bias of
men whose judgment was warped by irrepressible fanaticism. They
attributed to their hero elements that are grotesquely impossible. His
advent was in their estimation, so portentous that it was celebrated
by events which, for the time, upset all natural law. And his whole
life has been linked with miraculous happenings of a most ludicrous
type. More reasonable men have exalted the prophet because they have
convinced themselves that he was what he ought to have been. This may
account for the pious confidence of some of the more intelligent, who,
accepting tradition as historical, have exalted their hero to the
ideal, and have received the imagined glory as real. This tendency to
exalt their master is well illustrated by the maxim of Shafy--"In the
exaltation of Mohammed it is lawful to exaggerate"--a maxim invaluable
to men who were seeking to glorify the prophet, and the usefulness of
which was fully appreciated by the legislators and doctors when they
were called upon to cope with the new relations and exigencies that
came into being after his death. The conquests and progress of Islam
necessitated almost daily the framing of new rules, while in the
application of the old, constant modification and adaptation were
required. To meet these needs, actual or supposed sayings and actions
of the prophet were eagerly sought after, and, in time, with the
growth of a professional body of traditionalists, all legitimate
sources being exhausted, that which was doubtful, and even disputed,
was accepted as authentic and reliable. Imagination augmented the
legitimate springs of information, and the result was an exhaustive
accumulation of precedents for every possible circumstance.

Sprenger, in his essay on "Tradition," regarding the value and nature
of the material needed for compiling a life of Mohammed, says:

     "During the stir and activity of the first sixty years, thousands
     and thousands occupied themselves with handing down traditions. In
     every mosque they committed them to memory, and rehearsed them in
     every social gathering. All such knowledge was the common property
     of the nation; it was learned by heart and transmitted orally. It
     possessed, therefore, in the highest possible degree, the elements
     of life and plasticity. Bunson has discovered the divinity of the
     Bible in its always having been the people's book. If this
     criterion be decisive, then no religion has better claim to be
     called the 'vox Dei,' because none is in so full a sense the 'vox
     populi.' The creations of the period we have been considering
     possess this character for hundreds of millions of our fellow men;
     for modern Islamism is as far removed from the spirit in which the
     Coran was composed, as Catholicism is from the spirit of the
     Gospel; and modern Islamism is grounded upon tradition. But in
     tradition we find nothing but the Ideal, Invention, Fancy,
     Historical facts, however they may have been floating among the
     people in the days if Ibn 'Abbas, and the other founders of
     genealogy, were trodden under feet, because men wished to remove
     every barrier which stood in the way of self-glorification. And of
     the thousand inventions which every day gave birth to, only those
     were recognised as true which most flattered the religious and
     national pride ..."

He also goes on to say:

     "The time of creative activity, the gestation era of Moslem
     knowledge, passed away. Hajjaj choked the young life in its own
     blood, and the Abbaside dynasty, with kingly patriotism, sold the
     dearly-bought conquests of the nation, first to the Persians, and
     then to Turkish slaves, with the view of procuring an imaginary
     security for their throne. And thus there arose for the spiritual
     life also a new period. Already Wackidi had begun to work up into
     shape the mass of his traditionary stores, and busy himself in the
     department of scholastic industry. In the schools one could as
     little affect now the material tradition, or alter its nature, as
     attempt to change the organism of the new-born child. However
     arbitrary might be the invention of the 'Miraj' (Mahomed's heavenly
     journey), and other fabrications of the first century, they still
     formed in this way the positive element and soul of religious,
     political and social life. The schools, as always, confined their
     exertions to collecting, comparing, abbreviating, systematising,
     and commenting. The material was altogether divine; and any
     unprejudiced historical inquiry, any simple and natural
     interpretation of the Coran, any free judgment on tradition or its
     origin, was condemned as apostasy. The only task that remained was
     to work up, in scholastic form, the existing material; and in this
     way was developed a literature of boundless dimensions, which yet
     at bottom possessed nothing real. The whole spiritual activity of
     the Mohamedans, from the time of the prophet to the present day, is
     a dream; but it is a dream in which a large portion of the human
     race have lived; and it has all the interest which things relating
     to mankind always possess for man."

Sir William Muir agrees with these views, subject to two
considerations. He says:--

     "The tendency to glorify Mohammed and the reciters of the
     traditions was considerably modified by the mortal strife which
     characterised the factions that opposed one another at the period,
     where, in attempting to depreciate one another, they would not be
     averse to perpetuating traditions in support of their contentions;
     such partisanship secured no insignificant body of historical fact,
     which otherwise would have been lost."

He also points out that in a state of society circumscribed and
dwarfed by the powerful Islamic system, which proscribed the free
exercise of thought and discussion, tradition can scarcely be said to
be the "vox populi." The growth and development of tradition, the
flagrant distortion of historical fact, the ethical code of Islam, may
well give rise to a questioning of the validity of the prophet's
arrogant claims, and by their very methods of defence the apologists
of Islam exhibit its weakness and inadequacy to meet the religious
needs of man. The natural bias of Mohammed is evident throughout the
Coran. His conceptions of God, of the future life, and of the duty of
man, are all influenced by his consuming master passion. In all his
writings there are lacking those characteristics which distinguish the
true prophet--the messenger of God--from those to whom he is sent.
This will be apparent by contrasting his views with those of any of
the Old Testament prophets. They were eminently men prepared for their
high calling by lofty yet practical communion with God--men whose
message was inspired by a vision of Divine Majesty, and an impressive
conception of the justice and awful purity of Jehovah. Men who called
the nation to righteousness of life by a stirring appeal to
conscience, and an unfaltering denunciation of the evils of the time.
Their spiritual aspirations, therefore, by far surpass the loftiest
ideals of the prophet of Islam, while their ethical conceptions
infinitely transcend all that Mohammed dreamed of. The voice of the
Eternal is clearly heard in the earnest utterances that fell from
their lips, and through all their prophecies the willingness of Divine
Mercy to reason with men in spite of their erring ways, is apparent.

Three characteristic elements are perceived in their preaching--a very
keen and practical conscience of sin; an overpowering vision of God;
and a very sharp perception of the politics of their day. Of these
elements, Mohammed's teaching possesses only the last.



MOHAMMED'S CONCEPTION OF GOD


His conception of God is essentially deistical. The intimate personal
communion, so characteristic of the Old Testament, is unknown and
unrealised: hence there is little, if anything, in his system that
tends to draw men nigh to God. Attempts to remedy this characteristic
defect have been vainly made by the dervish orders, which, while
acknowledging the claims of Mohammed and his book, have introduced
methods not sanctioned by the system, by which they attempt to find
the communion with the Unseen, for which their souls crave. These
methods are very much akin to the efforts of the devotees of Hinduism.
There is, therefore, lacking amongst Moslems that need which grows out
of personal relationship with the Divine--that need which leads to
moral transformation and spiritual intensity on the part of those who
enjoy such fellowship. The Creator exists apart from His handiwork. He
has predetermined the actions of men. They are destined to eternal
bliss or destruction by an Inflexible Will, so that there is no need
for Divine Interference in their affairs. "God is in His heaven, and
the world is working out its end according to His unalterable decree."

Because of this gross conception, Palgrave has designated the system
"The Pantheism of Force," and says:

     "Immeasurably and eternally exalted above, and dissimilar from all
     creatures, which he levelled before Him on one common plane of
     instrumentality and inertness, God is One in the totality of
     omnipotent and omnipresent action, which acknowledges no rule,
     standard or limit, save His own sole and absolute will. He
     communicates nothing to His creatures, for their seeming power and
     act ever remain His alone, and in return He receives nothing from
     them; for whatever they may be, that they are in Him, by Him, and
     from Him only. And, secondly, no superiority, no distinction, no
     pre-eminence, can be lawfully claimed by one creature ever its
     fellow, in the utter equalisation of their unexceptional servitude
     and abasement; all are alike tools of the one solitary Force which
     employs them to crush or to benefit, to truth or to error, to
     honour or shame, to happiness or misery, quite independently of
     their individual fitness, deserts, or advantages, and simply
     because 'He wills it,' and 'as He wills it ...'

     "One might at first sight think that this tremendous Autocrat, this
     uncontrolled and unsympathising Power, would be far above anything
     like passions, desires, or inclinations. Yet such is not the case,
     for He has, with respect to His creatures, one main feeling and
     source of action, namely, jealousy of them, lest they should
     perchance attribute to themselves something of what is His alone,
     and thus encroach on His all engrossing kingdom. Hence He is ever
     more prone to punish than to reward; to inflict pain than to bestow
     pleasure; to ruin than to build. It is His singular satisfaction to
     let created beings continually feel that they are nothing else than
     His slaves, His tools, and contemptible tools also; that thus they
     may the better acknowledge His superiority, and know His power to
     be above their power, His cunning above their cunning, His will
     above their will, His pride above their pride--or, rather, that
     there is no power, cunning, will, or pride save His own.

     "But He Himself, sterile in His inaccessible height, neither loving
     nor enjoying aught save His own and self-measured decree, without
     son, companion, or counsellor, is no less barren of Himself than
     for His creatures, and His own barrenness and lone egoism in
     Himself is the cause and rule of His indifferent and unregarding
     despotism around. The first note is the key of the whole tune, and
     the primal idea of God runs through and modifies the whole system
     and creed that centres in Him."

Contrast this summary with the teaching of the Old Testament prophets,
the following quotations of which are but a small sample:--

     "Come, now, and let us reason together, saith the Lord. Though your
     sins be as scarlet they shall be as white as snow; though they be
     red like crimson, they shall be as wool."

     "Comfort ye, comfort ye, my people, saith your God. Speak ye
     comfortably to Jerusalem, and cry unto her that her warfare is
     accomplished, that her iniquity is pardoned."

     "The spirit of the Lord God is upon me: because the Lord has
     anointed me to preach good tidings unto the meek. He hath sent me
     to bind up the broken-hearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives,
     and the opening of the prison to them that are bound, etc."

     "As one whom his mother comforteth, so will I comfort you, saith
     the Lord."

     "Who is a god like unto Thee, that pardoneth iniquity, and passeth
     by the transgression of the remnant of His heritage? He retaineth
     not His anger for ever, because He delighteth in mercy. He will
     turn again; He will have compassion upon us. He will subdue our
     iniquities; and Thou wilt cast all our sins into the depths of the
     sea."

     "He hath showed thee, O man, what is good; and what doth the Lord
     require of thee, but to do justly, and to love mercy, and to walk
     humbly with thy God."

     "The Lord is good, a stronghold in the day of trouble; and He
     knoweth them that trust in Him."

In the light of such lofty teaching, the conceptions of Mohammed
appear gross and degraded. His asceticism and contemplation never
brought him a vision of God that overwhelmed him and purified as by
fire. He knew the Creator only from what he heard from the lips of
sinful, ignorant men, whose ideas of Deity were base and ignoble.
These ideas, and the passions that made up such a large portion of his
life, obscured his vision, warped his judgment, and led him to
postulate a God that inhabited not a Holy Spiritual Realm, but a
grossly carnal and sensuous paradise.

Millions have been brought beneath his sway because his system panders
to the natural inclinations of man. Spiritual insight is blinded by
carnal desire; conduct is influenced by unbridled license; bigotry and
hatred are fostered by his policy of intoleration; and his followers
are enslaved by a tyranny that blights the reason, because it
discountenances inquiry, and places an insurmountable barrier in the
way of all human progress.

In studying the life of Mohammed, the cause of his failure to uplift
humanity will be clearly seen. His early sincerity, if sincerity it
can be named, was absorbed by his consuming ambition. Had it been
otherwise he might have had his name inscribed with the honourable
ones of the earth--those men whose claims are ratified by their happy
effects. As it is, his name is linked with those whose deeds cause a
shudder of horror and repulsion to all who love honesty, purity, and
truth.




I.--EARLY LIFE.


Mohammed was born in Mecca, a town in Arabia, about seventy miles
inland from the Red Sea. His father, who died 570 A.D., a few months
before the child was born, was a member of the Banu Hashim clan. His
family, although well connected, was a humble one, possessing but
little wealth. On the death of his mother some six years later, the
child was taken by his grandfather, 'ABD-EL-MUTTALIB, who took care of
him for two years. Then he was adopted by his uncle, ABU TALIB, who
employed him to look after his flocks and herds.

From his earliest years, Mohammed must have been brought into contact
with the religious life of Mecca, for his grandfather was custodian of
the Kaaba, or temple, and would frequently take the boy with him on
his official visits to the place. The numerous images of the gods set
up in the temple would be familiar objects to the future prophet,
whose iconoclastic zeal was eventually to bring about their
destruction. His lonely shepherd life favoured the cultivation of the
contemplative habits of his manhood, and played no unimportant part in
the development of those characteristics which eminently fitted him
for the life he was to lead. Nature had endowed him with the essential
abilities of a commander of men, and his early environment provided a
training that enabled him to exercise those gifts most advantageously.

The population of Arabia at this time consisted of numerous
independent nomadic tribes, who were often at enmity one with another.
Political unity there was none, while each tribe had its own patron,
or god, which was considered to be responsible for everything
concerning the tribe's welfare. Where tribes were united, or at peace,
there the individual gods were supposed to be friendly. Even in Mecca,
which for many years had been occupied by a settled community, there
was no political or judicial organisation. The existing order was
maintained by a form of patriarchal government, under which system it
was possible for the head of a tribe or clan, to protect the life of
any individual he chose to befriend.

The religious beliefs and customs were evidently gross materialistic
corruptions of what had once been a purely spiritual worship. Mohammed
had been preceded by men who had from time to time, in spite of the
moral and intellectual darkness, been so endowed with spiritual
perception as to recognise and bewail the hollowness and degradation
of the Pagan system. Some, indeed, had been conscientious enough to
utter words of condemnation; others had gone so far as to despise and
ridicule its claims. So that when Mohammed was born the people were in
a condition of religious uncertainty. Many elements contributed to
this unrest. Travellers learned that the more prosperous nations had
rejected the age long sanctions of Paganism; earnest, thoughtful men
could not but recognise its inadequacy to satisfy the religious
aspirations of their fellows; Jews and Christians, who had settled in
the country, had introduced views that appealed to those who were
dissatisfied with the old methods of thought; while the need for
social and political unity called for a force that would unite the
scattered tribes in the pursuit of common ideals. Thus was the land
prepared for the mighty revolution that was to come--a revolution that
made one great nation of the various tribes, and turned their warlike
instincts and characteristic fanaticism, which before had been
dissipated by wasteful internecine strife, into one definite channel,
until it became a menace to the whole world. A change so potent, that,
in the lifetime of one man, it was able to obliterate partly by
absorption, and chiefly by annihilation, the sanctions and beliefs of
centuries, and which fostered a hatred so bitter, and a brotherhood so
strong, between man and man, that by its sanction the dearest,
tenderest, and strongest ties of humanity have been broken, while
those who for years had lived in enmity were united in bonds stronger
than death. Under its malevolent influence, children have ruthlessly
slain their parents, believing that thus would they merit heaven. And
men of different race have fought side by side under one banner,
hurling themselves with fanatical heroism upon their enemies,
believing that to die in such a way meant the winning of an immortal
crown.

During his boyhood, Mohammed had plenty of opportunities for observing
the condition of affairs, and, thanks to his privilege of travelling
with the caravans, was even able to notice the contrast between the
conditions of his own people and those of the more peaceable,
prosperous nations. He frequently attended upon his uncle in the
fighting that often occurred between the tribes, and so gained the
knowledge of military strategy which proved to be so useful at a later
time. Margoliouth suggests that the two most important lessons the
"prophet" learned at this time were the necessity of settling affairs
of blood by some expedient less wasteful, and more satisfactory than
that which was illustrated by the war of Fizar, and that war should be
regarded not as a game, but as a mode of obtaining decisive results.

The varied experiences he passed through on his caravan journeys did
much to influence his future policy; indeed, it appears that all
influences brought to bear upon his early life were forces that
moulded and equipped him for the office he was to fill. He was keenly
observant, and wonderfully accurate in his inferences, especially in
his estimate of the characters of men with whom he had to deal. He
seemed to lack initiative, for he was always reluctant to take action
in any important undertaking; but once the initial step was taken, he
pressed forward with indomitable courage. In his business transactions
he proved himself to be shrewd and tactful, and by his fidelity,
patience, and self-confidence, gained the respect and esteem of his
immediate fellows.

Khadijah, a rich widow, having entrusted Mohammed with the control of
an important caravan, and finding how admirably he had performed his
part, wisely concluded that her interests would be furthered if he had
a share in them. Hence their marriage, which happy arrangement proved
to be mutually blessed and successful. It vastly improved Mohammed's
social standing, raising him to a position of equality with the
leading men of the city. For many years he was content to live quietly
as an ordinary citizen, engrossed in the accumulation of wealth by
legitimate trading.




II.--THE "CALL" TO THE PROPHETIC OFFICE.


It has not been recorded how first he began to yield to the impulses
that eventually led him to assume the role of reformer, but it is
certain that at the age of forty he was the leader of a secret
society, which had for its object the political and religious unity of
the Arab people. He knew that far-reaching changes were necessary in
every department of national policy before his ideal could be
realised. Unity was the secret of power and prosperity. This he had
learned through contact with other nations. His dealing with Jews and
Christians had given rise to a deep appreciation of the value of a
monotheistic faith in the consolidation of a people, and he was
convinced that political unity would be achieved only where there was
religious unity. With masterly insight he laid his plans accordingly,
and because of the extreme conservatism was obliged to formulate them
in strict secrecy. Unfortunately, owing to his untrustworthy sources
of information, his policy was founded upon false bases. His distorted
conception of truth led him to establish a system of false philosophy
and theology so framed as to allow of no alteration or adaptation. In
his elaboration of the system, he depended much upon his own
meditative habits, and no doubt thought it all out in the loneliness
of the mountains, to which he frequently retired for the observance of
certain ascetic customs of the Pagans. Thus his scheme of reform
crystallised into definite shape, and his call to the prophetic office
became a fixed idea.

He felt certain that success lay in the determined proclamation of one
god as opposed to the many of the Arab pantheon, and the more he
pondered over this Being, of whom he had heard from the Jews and
Christians, the greater became his certainty. God was supreme and
omnipotent; of that there could be no doubt. But how to convince the
people was a difficulty that needed much careful thought and cautious
propagation. Jews and Christians could boast of prophets--of men
inspired to speak with the voice of God--but the Arabs had had no one
who had spoken with such authority. Why had they been so neglected?
Surely they needed to hear the Divine voice, and that need was never
greater than now, when all was unrest and dissention. Where was the
man who would fill the office? Who would be willing to face the odds,
and declare against evil by proclaiming the good and the true? Such
must have been the questions that exercised Mohammed's mind. Then came
the thought--"Why should not I be the messenger?" And this so grew
upon him that he was convinced of his "call." The possession of this
idea made him sincere in his purpose at first, but after the tide had
turned in his favour, that sincerity was marred--nay, eclipsed--by an
inflated notion of self-importance, and a consuming ambition to which
every virtue and good feeling was subordinated, until at last he was
able, with superb arrogance, to bracket his name with Deity, making
the confession of his claim as important as the confession of the
Unity of God. Wherein his inconsistency and falsity is chiefly
apparent, for confession of Unity is insufficient without recognition
of Mohammed's apostleship!

Ascetic practices tend to lead to physical disorders, which generally
upset the mind and lead to mental and moral distemper. Judgment is
warped because the functions of the mind are thrown out of gear. The
varied departments of consciousness act with ungoverned caprice, with
the result that fantastical fancies and visions are interpreted to be
realties, which become misleading and deceptive. Thus may be explained
the visit of the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed, but it can hardly be
conceived that it will account for the ingenious method of revelation
which he received. Some people believe it to have been inspired by
Satan; it must ever remain a matter of speculation.

The necessity of a _piecemeal_ revelation could not at this time have
been apparent to the prophet. But we may give him the credit of the
policy of abrogation which he afterwards adopted, for such a policy
was necessary to enable him to cover or justify his actions which,
like those of even the best of men, were marked by inconsistency.




III.--BIRTH OF THE ISLAMIC SOCIETY.


Being firmly convinced of his call, Mohammed, with characteristic
caution, began to propagate his principles, for years being content to
deal secretly with individuals, beginning with those of his own
household. His wife acknowledged and encouraged his claim, and
gradually he gathered around him an increasing circle of devoted
followers, some of whom had more confidence in him and his pretensions
than he had himself. This was particularly true of ABU BAKR, a rich
and popular merchant of Mecca, who, having acknowledged the claims of
the prophet, followed him with implicit obedience and unwavering
devotion. He threw himself whole-heartedly into the work of
proselytising, and the progress of early days, although slow, was
largely due to his indefatigable energy.

As the membership of the new society increased, rules were framed,
based upon the "revelations" which Mohammed now periodically received,
and each member was compelled to subscribe to the most stringent
regulations. Idolatry was strongly condemned and the unity of God
emphatically asserted. Certain Jewish and Christian religious
ordinances were imposed as a condition of membership, while unswerving
loyalty to the prophet was demanded. License was given to the members
to practice outwardly the old rites and ceremonies of Paganism, in
order to arouse no suspicion, but the existence of such a society, in
spite of all precautions, could not long remain unnoticed, and the
time came when the prophet and his followers were compelled to make
public confession of their faith. Persecution followed, in which the
poorer members suffered more than their richer brethren. Mohammed
himself received the protection of the head of his clan, and for eight
or ten years carried on a campaign of words. Margoliouth, in his life
of Mohammed, likens the prophet to a player in a game of cards, who,
having received a good hand, plays his cards with consummate skill. He
took advantage of every opportunity in strengthening his position, and
having a clear-cut policy before him, subordinated everything to its
furtherance. He was a powerful preacher, but owing to his ungovernable
temper, was not so successful in debate; hence he produced a
"revelation" forbidding him to engage in public controversy! He showed
great diligence in seeking information that enabled him to produce his
revelations in a style consistent with his claims. Being entirely
dependent on hearsay, he obtained but a sadly distorted account of
truth. The Koran is full of glaring errors, which, for centuries, have
baffled the ingenuity of the Moslem doctors. Yet the prophet
presumptuously claimed that his, being the last "revelation," was the
most important, and more reliable, and the differences that were
apparent were due to the corruption in time of the text of the former
"revelations"--_i.e._, the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures!

He was evidently much perplexed by the divisions and controversies
that existed within the Christian Church, and considered that the
images and pictures then in use were little better than the idols of
his own people. With no means of testing and verifying his knowledge,
he accepted all that tended to enhance his own position, and his chief
regret seems to have been his inability, in reply to the taunts of his
enemies, to point to any element of the miraculous in his career. In
the revelations, he frequently expressed views and opinions which
flatly contradicted what he had formerly stated, and when challenged
as to his inconsistency, defended it by claiming that it was not he
who had changed his mind, but God, whose ways no man could question or
understand!

In time, the position of the new sect became so intolerable that many
were compelled to flee, and numbers went into Abyssinia, where they
were well received. Mohammed himself, thanks to his relatives'
protection, could still afford to remain in Mecca. In spite of the
opposition, his influence gradually increased, and was considerably
strengthened by the conversion of Omar, a citizen famed for his skill
in military strategy and courage. Not long afterwards, Khadijah, the
prophet's wife died. She had wielded a strong, healthy influence over
her husband, and had cheered him on in times of discouragement and
failure. Islam owes not a little to her life and influence, and were
it more widely recognised, might possibly lead to an improvement of
the position of the poor unfortunate daughters of the system, who are
enslaved and degraded to a saddening degree. After Khadijah's death,
Mohammed took full advantage of the polygamous sanctions of Paganism,
and even abused the privilege when it conflicted with his own
inclinations. Margoliouth attempts to defend the many marriages on the
ground of political expediency, which may be conceded in only a few
cases. In most instances they were due to selfish desire and
inordinate affection. Particularly is this true in the case of the
prophet's marriage with his adopted son's wife, which was a gross
violation of Arab law.

On the death of his protector, Mohammed was compelled to seek refuge
elsewhere, but not before he had made inconsistent concessions to the
pagan leaders. In these concessions he retreated entirely from the
strong iconoclastic attitude he had hitherto adopted, going so far as
to produce a revelation that claimed to reconcile the One True God to
the gods of the Pagan pantheon. This compromise, no matter how wise
and statesmanlike it may appear to be, clearly indicates the falsity
of Mohammed's claim, and enables us to estimate the value of his
pretensions. His action was strongly condemned by many of his
followers, and probably under the influence of their opinion, he
produced an apologetic revelation abrogating the concession, and
admitting it to have been a mistake!

He endeavoured to escape the persecution in Mecca by taking refuge in
Taif, but was so badly treated there when his views became known, that
he was glad to return, and upon promising to confine his proselytising
efforts to strangers, was allowed to stay under the protection of one
of the leading citizens. He carried on his work among strangers with
such success, that before long a strong community had grown up in the
town of Medinah. The rapid increase of this section of his disciples
may be accounted for by the very unsettled condition of the place.
Civil and religious strife had been for a long time aggravated by the
aggressive attitude of a large section of Jews, so that circumstances
were more favourable to the reception and growth of Islam than in
Mecca, where there was more peaceful organisation, and where the
existence of the ancient Kaaba, or dwelling place of the gods, made
men more jealous of their old religion.

In the appointment of a man to lead the new community, Mohammed
exhibited his characteristic insight into the abilities of men. He
selected a follower thoroughly convinced of his master's claims, whose
zeal in the earlier days had led him to forsake friends and family by
flight into Abyssinia--a man full of enthusiasm and energy. In a
comparatively short time the new religion became quite popular, and
idolatry was despised. An incident indicative of the progress is seen
in the visit of seventy of the Medinah disciples to Mohammed in Mecca.
They met him secretly in the mountains, by night, and made solemn,
binding vows of allegiance, in which they promised "to fight men of
all colour in order to defend the faith." It is highly probable that
at this meeting the prophet was invited to join them in Medinah, but
for the present he preferred his native town.

Somehow the story of the night meeting leaked out, with the result
that persecution was redoubled, and many of the less wealthy followers
were forced to flee to Medinah. They were there well received and
cared for, and were afterwards honoured by being designated the
"refugees," while those who received them were similarly honoured in
being named the "helpers." Thus the brotherhood of believers insisted
on by Mohammed began to assume practical form, and men of different
tribes were united in one common bond--a brotherhood so powerful that
its enemies in Mecca were filled with alarm. They had no longer to
deal with a man whose views could be despised. They were menaced by a
growing force that threatened to overwhelm them. Steps were taken to
overthrow the danger, and elaborate arrangements were made for the
assassination of the prophet. He somehow obtained news of the plot,
and escaped the would-be murderers, who came while he was supposed to
be in bed, by climbing through a window. Accompanied by the faithful
Abu Bakr and a few of his more intimate followers, he made his way to
one of the mountain caves, where he stayed until the immediate danger
had passed. Then the little company commenced the journey to Medinah,
a task so fraught with danger and hardship that Mohammed shrank from
it, in spite of the Meccan evil, and was compelled to attempt it only
by the pressure of his friends.

The facts concerning his entry into Medinah are obscure and uncertain,
but there is no doubt that his advent was hailed with delight by the
"helpers" and "refugees." Hospitality was freely offered, and, owing
to the prophet's independent spirit, reluctantly accepted. One of his
earliest actions after arrival was to consolidate his forces by
strengthening the brotherhood, making the obligations of his followers
to one another, and himself, more binding than the ties of blood.




IV.--GROWTH AND PROGRESS.


He now found himself the acknowledged head of a large growing community,
which looked to him for guidance in all its affairs--religious, social,
and political. Proudly, and with true Eastern despotism, he took upon
himself the dignities of prophet, priest, and king. He needed no one with
whom to share these functions. His was the sole right--his alone. His
ambitions were being realised. The striving of years, the disappointment,
doubts, and fears that had so tormented him were well repaid, and could be
forgotten in the glamour that now surrounded him. Enthusiastic and
fanatical votaries crowded around him with loyal acclamation. Pampered and
petted with excessive adulation, can it be wondered that he had visions of
power hitherto undreamed of? His scheme of national reform paled into
insignificance in the light of possibility. He saw himself the leader of a
world-wide conquest--the promoter of a prodigious scheme of universal
reform. He was not merely the messenger of the Arab people, but the
mouthpiece of God to the whole wide world. And by the Divine Power that
possessed him would receive the humble homage of proud and mighty nations,
whose haughty monarchs would bow in lowly submission to his imperious
will! Prophetic insight, regal authority, judicial administration were his
by divine right, to be enforced, if needs be, at the point of the Islamic
sword.

As his position improved, so his ideals deteriorated. His early piety
was modified by the lust of worldly power. In place of patient pacific
methods of propagation, he adopted a cruel, ruthless, warlike policy,
and it was not long--perhaps owing to the extreme poverty which
afflicted the new community--before the would-be prophet became the
leader of a robber host. Yet even in spite of the glamour that
surrounded him, and the questionable behaviour that characterised this
period of his life, we catch occasional glimpses of that which reveals
the working of nobler instincts in his mind. Had his environment been
other than it was, Mohammed had been indeed a hero in the world's
history. Ignorance of truth led him to place himself under the
mysterious power of hallucination. The lonely brooding of the cave had
produced that which had urged him into a position of bondage. He was
the slave of a false idea, which so possessed him that he pressed
onward, in spite of all that stood in his way, whether it was good or
bad. It exerted an irresistible influence over all his impulses,
leading him into actions in every way indefensible. When fair means
failed, he adopted foul, and so succeeded beyond his highest dreams.

The first Mosque, or meeting place, was built very soon after his
arrival in Medinah, and he entered upon his priestly functions. As a
matter of policy, he adopted many of the Jewish rites. These, however,
he soon changed, for as the number of his followers increased, and he
grew more and more independent of Jewish aid, he made every effort to
show his natural aversion to the ancient people, who scorned his
prophetic pretensions. In place of praying towards Jerusalem, his
followers were commanded to turn their faces towards Mecca. The Fast
of Atonement was abolished in favour of the month of Ramadan, while in
substitution for the Jewish rite of sacrifice, the pagan slaying of
victims was observed.

A considerable difference is to be noticed between the "revelations"
of this period and those of Mecca. The latter were concerned with
denunciations of idolatry; proofs of the Divine unity and attributes;
legendary stories, and occasional lurid pictures of heaven and hell.
The former are generally of a legislative character, mingled with the
domestic affairs of the prophet, and guidance as to his military
policy. The method of recording them, too, seems to have been
systematised, for it is certain that a body of professional scribes
were engaged in this work, and evidence is not wanting to show that
these scribes were allowed to express the revelations in their own
particular style. Discrepancies and inconsistencies abounded, but
Mohammed seems to have allowed that he was not responsible, and to
have stated that God had a perfect right to alter as He pleased, and
even to apologise for errors! The policy of abrogation has its
sanction in the text, "Whatever verses we cancel or cause thee to
forget, we give thee better in their stead, or the like thereof."

In his warlike policy, the prophet's strategy reflects most
discreditably upon his character, everything that was honourable and
virtuous being sacrificed to the passion for conquest. When he needed
help, he pretended friendship to those he hated; and then, becoming
strong enough to be independent, did not hesitate, upon the slightest
provocation or pretext, to turn his sword against them. This is
particularly true of his treatment of the Jews, whom he at first
befriended, but afterwards treated with barbarous injustice.

Within a very few months of their arrival in Medinah, the need of some
method of support, other than the charity of the helpers, presented
itself. The number of refugees was still increasing, and the demand
for the ordinary necessities of life exceeded the supply. Mohammed, to
his credit, shared the misery of his followers, and proved himself to
be generous even when in want. In order to meet the need, the policy
of despoiling the wealthy Meccan caravans was conceived, and carried
out with some degree of success. The prophet at first exhibited a
feeling of repugnance against such warfare, especially when the
ancient pacific regulations of certain sacred months were violated.
But the benefits of the revenue accruing led him, some time
afterwards, to produce revelations sanctioning hostilities even in the
sacred months. The early successes provided the community with more
wealth than was needed, and, arousing the avarice of many of those who
were opposed to the prophet, led them to throw in their lot with him.
Having seared his conscience by acknowledging the righteousness of the
robber policy, it was easy for him to persuade himself that it was all
part of the purpose of God to prosper his claims. All who would not
acknowledge him were the enemies of God, and had no rights to property
or to life. He began to preach the holiness of war against all
unbelievers. He fanned the avaricious fanaticism of his followers into
a flame of religious enthusiasm, and they became soldier priests,
whose deaths on the battlefield were glorious martyrdoms, which gave
them immediate entrance into a paradise where all their inclinations
could be indulged to an unlimited degree. It is not to be wondered
that an army of such men could put three times their number of Meccans
not so inspired to flight. This is what actually happened in the
battle of Badr. Mohammed had received news of the possibility of
capturing a particularly rich Meccan caravan, and decided to make the
attempt. News of his plans reached the Meccans, who determined to
frustrate, if possible, the designs of their enemy. A thousand men
were rapidly organised into a defensive and punitive force, and sent
out to overwhelm the three hundred Moslems. They were by no means
skilled in military strategy, little better than a disorderly horde;
whereas the Moslems, under the masterly guidance of Mohammed, seem to
have exhibited clever organisation. It has been said that the rigid
prayer ritual enforced by Mohammed, at the risk of Divine punishment,
had a disciplinary effect, and produced results very similar to those
obtained by military drill. The Meccan host was put to flight,
discipline, and steadfastness of purpose determined the victory. The
Moslems returned to Medinah, carrying in triumph many prisoners, and
considerable booty. The revelation produced after this, speaks of it
as the "Day of deliverance," and Mohammed rejoices because the stigma
of powerlessness to show evidence of miracle in his life, is removed,
for he accounts for the victory by direct intervention of God in his
favour. The effect of the victory on the surrounding tribes was highly
favourable to the prophet. Many of the chiefs sought to ally
themselves to him, but he received their offers solely on condition
that they would embrace Islam. Few accepted, and those who did not
before long regretted it.

For about a year after his success, his power and influence increased,
until the whole of the tribes between Mecca and Medinah had been won
over. Then came a defeat. The Meccans had been nursing their
bitterness, and at last, just over two years after the victory of
Badr, it found its outlet in an expedition again Mohammed. The Moslem
forces were rallied, and under the prophet's leadership sallied forth
to meet the Meccans. A fierce battle ensued, in which at first the
Moslems had the advantage, and the Meccans were forced to fly. But
they had learned many lessons in the fight at Badr, and had posted
some of their cavalry in such a position that, when the Moslem order
was disturbed in their pursuit of the enemy, they made a charge upon
their rear. The fleeing Meccans turned, and the Moslems found
themselves between two attacks. Then came the cry that Mohammed was
killed! Instead of increasing the Moslem disorder by discouragement,
it made them fight more doggedly, for the majority were so committed
to Islam that they cared not for life if their prophet was dead. This
prevented what must otherwise have meant absolute victory on the part
of the Meccans, and a number of them, with Mohammed, who was only
wounded, were able to retire to Medinah. The Meccans were quite
satisfied with the result, considering that the stigma of their defeat
at Badr had been wiped out. Later on, when Mohammed had sufficiently
recovered of his wounds, he made a public appearance in the Mosque,
where he was able to persuade his followers that their apparent defeat
was really a victory! The general who is able to persuade his forces
that there is victory, even where there seems to be defeat, is one who
will inspire them to fight against apparently impossible odds. They
will, indeed, never suffer defeat, but will fight on until annihilated
by capture or death. The secret of success even in the more pacific
engagements of life lies in this principle--to be undaunted in
ardour, in spite of failure; to recognise in failure a step towards
ultimate success. Let a man be possessed with these, and victory is
within his grasp, whether he recognises it or not.

After this, Mohammed did not scruple to employ the system of warfare
by assassination, if warfare it can be called. Some tribes, emboldened
by the report of the Meccan success, began to treat Moslem emissaries
with scant courtesy, and went so far as to murder some. Mohammed
retaliated by sending men to balance the scales in the same criminal
way, particularly in treating with the Jews. An idea had grown up in
his mind that these people had determined to murder him. This, with
matters of minor importance, already referred to, at last led to an
organised attempt to subjugate them. A large, influential tribe was
besieged; their date trees, lands, and property wantonly destroyed.
Eventually the whole tribe surrendered, and were glad to march away
with what possessions their camels could carry. This led to a
combination of other Jewish tribes, which laid siege to Medinah. The
siege was not successful, and barbarous treatment was meted out to the
besiegers. After much skirmishing and general fighting, a number of
the Jews who had been captured were decapitated, while their women and
children were enslaved. Those who were unwilling to embrace Islam,
were compelled to pay tribute. So the prosperity and success of Islam
was assured. The Jews were no longer bold enough to cause the prophet
any anxiety as to the validity of his prophetic claims, nor were they
of a mind that would arouse fear as to their fighting abilities. They
were true descendants of Isaac and Jacob, who were both men of peace,
and were not qualified for success in war against the posterity of the
active warlike Ishmael and Esau.

Freed from all anxiety in this direction, the prophet, realising that
the security of Medinah could never be assured while the Meccans were
opposed to him, began to formulate plans for the conquest of their
city. His first step was to try and conciliate them, with a view to
sending a pilgrim band into the city, but the citizens were far too
cautious and suspicious to allow that. At last, however, they were
prevailed upon to receive his son-in-law, Omar, who succeeded in
persuading a section of the Meccans of the injustice of barring the
Holy Temple to those who, although their enemies, were, after all,
their kinsmen. This led to a treaty, in which Mohammed brought shame
upon his followers because of his concessions. The arrangements were
that for ten years, peace between the prophet and the Meccans should
be maintained, and that within a year a party of the Moslems were to
be allowed to make a pilgrimage to the Kaaba.

The humiliation to which the prophet compelled his followers to submit
gave rise to considerable indignation, which was allayed only when he
himself submitted to the shaving of his head and the offering of
sacrifice. He knew that the humiliation was worthy of the advantage
gained--indeed, it was but the furtherance of his policy, in which no
action that was expedient could possibly be disgraceful. To him such
a treaty involved no sacred obligation to his enemies. He was God's
prophet, and as such was free of all obligation to those who did not
follow him, a principle deeply rooted in Islam, which makes the
violation of all virtuous relations with unbelievers highly
meritorious.




V.--WORLD CONQUEST.


Not long after the treaty with the Meccans, Mohammed revealed the fact
that he had elaborated a scheme of world conquest, by sending
representatives to earthly monarchs of whom he had heard. His
messengers carried letters bearing the seal, "Mohammed, Prophet of
God," and urging the addressees to acknowledge his claims by embracing
Islam. These overtures were in some cases favourably received; in
others with contempt; but, of course, did not lead to compliance with
the demands, except, perhaps, on the part of a few of the rulers of
some Arabic tribes.

The eighth year of the flight is famous in the history of the
prophet's life, because his followers, for the first time, came into
conflict with the forces of the Christian empire. The battle of Mutah
resulted in defeat of the Moslems, and, consequently, details have
been suppressed. It was part of Mohammed's policy to counteract the
demoralising influence of defeat by immediately attempting a fight in
which victory was assured. This, to my mind, justified war on any
pretext or grievance. In this case he conceived the idea of invading
Mecca, and, although minor incidents justify his decision to a slight
degree, his breach of the treaty adds to the evidence that is
derogatory to his character.

The pilgrimage of the year before had been organised by him with the
view of impressing the Meccans of his power, and was decidedly
successful. When he with his ten thousand troops approached the city,
fear caused submission on the part of the leader of the city forces,
and after some slight skirmishing with a section of the community,
which preferred to show active disapproval of the ignominious
surrender, the city was won. Every idolatrous element of the Kaaba
worship was swept away, and, although its pagan associations were
negatived, it was sanctified to the service of Islam, and is still its
only altar. The city was invested with a more sacred significance than
it had ever occupied under the pagan system. It was never again to be
defiled by the spilling of human blood, the prophet insisting upon
this with admirable inconsistency! He showed his gratification in many
acts of statesmanlike condescension, and seems at this time to have
considered himself to be the ruler of all Arabs. Although it is
improbable that Mohammed was aware of it, the significance he attached
to the Holy City, by teaching that the Caaba was a heavenly built
edifice, was to become the means of consolidating his system, in spite
of national and racial distinctions. In its precincts, pilgrims from
India, Persia, China, Russia, Turkey, and other lands where Islam has
its devotees, mingle with the wild Bedouin of the desert in one common
brotherhood, and worship, in unity of faith and form, Allah, the great
and merciful.

After its capture, the fierce warlike Bedouin nomadic tribes made
strenuous and courageous attempts to win back the city, but the Moslem
forces were invariably successful, and, in time, Mohammed returned to
Medinah more triumphant than ever. Eventually Taif, which had
successfully resisted a siege, submitted peacefully to the prophet's
claims, and the subjugation of the whole of Arabia followed.

An ingenious system of taxation was imposed upon all tribes submitting
to Mohammed. The natural prejudice that universally exists against
taxation (!) was overcome, because it was instituted as a religious
rather than a statutory obligation. Thus the regular payments of alms
became one of the five acts of faith imposed upon all believers. The
other acts are: confession of creed, prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage.




VI.--MOHAMMED AND WOMEN.


The prophet's domestic life exerted considerable influence upon his
religion; effects of which are to be seen in the Mohammedan home of
to-day. His numerous marriages afforded experience which led to the
framing of many "divine" laws referring to women. As has already been
hinted, Kadijah, his first wife, exercised considerable influence over
his prophetic career. She evidently had a strong affection for him,
which feeling was heartily reciprocated. She had a personality strong
enough to curb his natural passion, and to preserve her place in spite
of it in his regard. Her encouragement and support when success and
failure were trembling in the balance, urged him to persist in the
development of his ideas. He was faithful to her during their married
life, and to her memory afterwards, and promised her, upon her
deathbed, that she should share his heavenly chamber after his death,
with the Mother of Jesus and the sister of Moses. Within a month of
her death he was betrothed to Ayesha, a child of seven. He did not
actually marry her until she was nine years of age, and during the
interval consoled himself by wedding a widow who had acted as nurse to
one of his daughters. This marriage seems to have been more a matter
of convenience than of affection on his part, and in later days she
was able to keep her position as his wife only by the yielding of
certain of her privileges to other members of the harem.

Seven months after his arrival in Medinah, during the time of poverty,
the marriage with Ayesha was celebrated, the child of nine being
united to the man of fifty-three! a marriage defended on the ground of
political expediency, whereby the devotion of Abu Bakr, the child's
father was strengthened. She seems to have been second only to
Khadijah in the prophet's affections, and exercised a petty tyranny
over him, which was submitted to even when it affected his
revelations. She excited the envy of the other wives because of her
privileges, and in spite of intrigue, was able to hold her own. She
was extremely sarcastic in regard to some of the revelations, and even
went so far on one occasion as to jeer the prophet on his faithfulness
in recording them. This sarcasm was prompted by jealousy, because of
Mohammed's marriage with Zainab, which was so illegal as to cause him
to throw the responsibility on God. Zainab was the wife of the
prophet's adopted son Zaid, who, having discovered his foster-father's
love, thought it wise to divorce her in his favour. The revelation
Mohammed produced seems to have been held over until his critics had
been mollified by some victory--hence the sarcasm!

During the raiding of the Jews, Mohammed was considerably disturbed by
the desire of the wives to accompany him on the expeditions. He eased
the difficulty by arranging that one only should go with him on each
expedition, and should obtain the favour by lot. Ayesha got into
difficulty on one of these expeditions. She dropped a necklace and
remained behind the returning party in order to seek for it. A youth
who, too, had loitered behind, found it, and accompanied her back to
the camp. Her enemies were not slow to take advantage of this incident
to prejudice her before the prophet. He was deeply hurt, and in face
of the surge of public opinion, sent her back to her parents. The
complications arising out of the divorce would probably have alienated
the sympathies of Abu Bakr, her father, so with his usual diplomacy,
Mohammed produced a revelation, in which God declared Ayesha innocent
of any cause for divorce! It was through Ayesha, too, that the prophet
conceived the idea of praying for deliverance from the torment of the
grave, for she casually remarked one day that she had heard a Jewish
woman speaking about torment after death. Through all her life with
the prophet she proved herself to be strong in character, and a
fitting mate for a man of Mohammed's type.

Other wives did not play such an important part in the prophet's life
work. He seems to have exhibited his taste for beauty in all his
selections. Keud was the daughter of a man of considerable wealth and
influence, and, like Zainab, was one of the Abyssinian refugees. In
the expedition against Khaibah, Mohammed's greed was excited by the
sight of some valuable ornaments belonging to one of his vanquished
enemies. He sought to gain possession of them by marrying the daughter
of the owner, Safiyyah, whose husband and brother had both been killed
in the battle that had been fought. She accepted the prophet's offer,
and contented herself for her losses in the squabbles of his harem.
His other wives were Juwairijah, Hafsah, Um Salmah, Um Kabibah,
another of the Abyssinian refugees, and Zainab, widow of his cousin.
The last wife was Maimunah, who is said to have offered herself to him
when he was considering the invasion of Mecca. A Coptic (Christian)
slave girl, Mary, and Rihanah, a Jewess, were added to the harem, but
went through no form of marriage with him. Mary was sent as a present
from one of the Coptic rulers in answer to the prophet's letter,
urging the claims of Islam; while Rihanah, whose husband was one of
the many who were cruelly slaughtered by decapitation after a victory
over the Jews, was at nightfall, almost immediately after the
massacre, taken to the prophet's tent. It is evident that the prophet
had many opportunities of still further increasing his harem, for many
women offered themselves; while the relatives of handsome widows would
make no arrangements for the re-marriage of the bereaved ones until
they had been offered to the prophet and refused.

It cannot be expected that things could always run smoothly with so
many women possessing rights to his attention, and there is much
evidence to show that Mohammed was often disturbed by the difficulty
of pleasing all. His relations to the feminine sex, as may be
expected, led to a very low estimate of the position of women. Hence
the utter degradation to which they are subjected in Islam. Although
he did not practice it, he sanctioned wife beating. Divorce was made
easy for the men, who could cast off their wives any time they so
desired. Thus it is quite common to-day for women to steal from their
husbands in order to provide for themselves in case of divorce. The
evil of such a system is apparent. It makes the women mere slaves at
the mercy of the caprice of their husbands. The polygamy and
concubinage which is sanctioned in the Koran, has degraded the women
to a degree that may be imagined, and certainly has not, as some
authorities contend, abolished other evils. It is true that he
improved slightly the condition of women in his day, giving them
privileges they had not up to that time enjoyed, and by those who
endeavour to picture him as a hero, his failure to arrive at a true
estimate of the position of women is covered by the statement that it
was impossible for him to grapple with a hopeless problem. It is
encouraging to know that, with the growing influence of Western
Christian civilisation, the condition of women in Moslem lands is
gradually improving, although the village folk still consider us to be
weak in character because we are courteous in our behaviour to them.
In Egypt, Government schools for girls are being organised, and
throughout the whole Moslem world education is spreading. The religion
of Mohammed is so clearly defined that it can never be reformed. The
only hope for the nations that are under its sway is that with the
advance of western civilisation there may be a yielding to the
influence of Christianity. It cannot be possible to enjoy the
blessings of the West while men are tyrannised by a non-progressive
religion of the East.

Just before he died Mohammed organised an expedition against the
Romans, and this in spite of sickness unto death. He had made his last
pilgrimage to Mecca, and had delivered what may be termed his final
charge to his followers. The whole tone of his address seems to have
been influenced by the thought of the proximity of death. He
emphasised the doctrines he had inculcated, showing that the Islamic
brotherhood removed all that tended to social inequality. The rich man
was no better than the poor; the aristocrat who boasted of his
ancestry, no more important in the sight of God than the lowliest
beggar. The only difference that could exist between man and man was a
difference in degree of piety. Property rights he recognised as
regarding believers, and evidently implied that unbelievers possessed
no such rights. He asked respect and humane treatment for women, and
undoubtedly manifested a desire for a better condition of affairs than
he in his lifetime had been able to establish. The subsequent illness
was probably due to the strain and anxiety of this pilgrimage. Ayesha,
the girl wife, tended him. The many stories that have been told of
these last days are not at all reliable, but it is certain that for
five days he was quite helpless and delirious. On the 7th of June, 632
A.D., ten years after the flight from Mecca, he died in the arms of
Ayesha, leaving a work that wrought havoc in the Christian Church for
centuries, and which, inspired by his immortal spirit, still exists in
unyielding enmity against the faith of the meek and lowly Nazarene,
whose native soil, in the providence of God, is owned by Islam's son.
Never again will be heard the clash of steel on steel as Christian
tries to vanquish Moslem. Those days are happily past and gone. Carnal
weapons cannot avail against spiritual forces. The eternal, peaceable
Spirit of Jesus is slowly but surely permeating the gloom of Islam. We
see the resultant disintegration, and hope for that great day when,
led by the broken and contrite spirit of their leader, the hosts of
Islam shall bow before the King of Kings, recognising what, in time,
they were impelled to deny--Unity in Trinity, the at present
unrevealed mystery of Deity.

Britain, the greatest Moslem power of the world, needs to change her
policy in regard to Christian missionary work amongst Moslems, if she
is desirous of promoting the welfare of those benighted people. She
must give freedom to the heralds of the Cross who labour in the lands
of the Crescent. And the prayers of her people must ascend on behalf
of the sons and daughters of Islam who sit in darkness and the shadow
of death.



***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOHAMMED, THE PROPHET OF ISLAM***


******* This file should be named 14064.txt or 14064.zip *******


This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/0/6/14064



Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
will be renamed.

Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
redistribution.



*** START: FULL LICENSE ***

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
http://gutenberg.net/license).


Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works

1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works.  See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.

1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
States.

1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net

1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
1.E.9.

1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.

1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg-tm License.

1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.net),
you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
that

- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."

- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
     License.  You must require such a user to return or
     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
     Project Gutenberg-tm works.

- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
     of receipt of the work.

- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.

1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
your equipment.

1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.


Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm

Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
and the Foundation web page at http://www.gutenberg.net/fundraising/pglaf.


Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.

The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
page at http://www.gutenberg.net/about/contact

For additional contact information:
     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
     Chief Executive and Director
     gbnewby@pglaf.org

Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
particular state visit http://www.gutenberg.net/fundraising/donate

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
donations.  To donate, please visit:
http://www.gutenberg.net/fundraising/donate


Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works.

Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.

Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:

     http://www.gutenberg.net

This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.